Pascal's book is a history of the Sturm und Drang movement, which took place in Germany roughly between 1770 and 1778. Although relatively brief, the movement was to have a large impact on the contemporary debates about social criticism, morality, the role of government, religion, poetry, and, in particular, it was to presage the ideas of the German Romantic movement in many ways. “Associates of the Sturm und Drang were urged on by the desire to live according to instinctive feeling, to fashion their lives according to intuition and ‘revelation’, not social norms and practical reasonableness.” There was a general unease and restlessness about the current epoch that helped mold the Sturmer und Drangers. Hamann, Herder, Goethe, and Lenz were the movement’s most enduring members.
Hamann was the eldest of the group. He was a pietist, hated the French bureaucracy, installed by Frederick the Great, despite holding a minor post under it, was a thoroughly impractical man, and, finally, was an obscure writer, known for his Biblical allusions. He despised public affairs and social conventions. He prized intuition over reason. This led to a “repudiation of the claims of all political and social organization, an expression of his conviction that only religious faith, and private life in which religious belief can be fostered, have real value.” Thus he was “against the authority of all impersonal forces, whether of state or metaphysics, against all formalism in religion and secular life.” His was a spiritual, subjective individualism. Hamann espoused, “Everything that man undertakes, whether it be produced in action or word or anything else, must spring from his whole united powers; all separation of powers is to be repudiated.” He valued experience and personal feelings above all else.
Herder considered Hamann a friend and a mentor. However, he was not as doctrinaire as him. Herder sought a synthesis of theory and practice, of thought and action. However, he too prized feelings, intuition, perception, and using one’s senses as a means of discovering reality. Herder, alone in the movement, was “to construct a general philosophy of life, embracing the scientific, practical and intuitive faculties of man…. a philosophy of man which would justify all his capacities, including the senses, that would give all his faculties more intense life and vibration.” He had manic and depressive spells in which he alternated between rapturous enthusiasm and hypochondria.
Goethe is perhaps the most famous of the Sturmer und Dranger. Although his views would significantly change as he got older, in this period of his life, he prized feelings over science and reason. As he put it, he was “surrendering himself from moment to moment.” Herder would say to him, “everything with you is vision.” He lived an intense life in which experience dominated and he was able to express both his feelings and imagination ably. During the Sturm und Drang period, Goethe exclaimed, “I am delighted! I am happy! I feel it, and yet the whole content of my joy is a surging longing for something I do not possess, for something I do not know.” His happiness was buoyed by the search of something indescribable. He was a man of extremes, who lurched from one intense experience to another. “Goethe lives in a constant inward war and rebellion, since all things have a most violent effect on him.” He did not respect the normal social and moral values, and so “he sought in his works not to teach or preach, but to find a form for his experience of the world, and through this form to grow in range and depth.”
Lenz is perhaps the least well known major character in the Sturm und Drang movement. He was an emotional man. He felt, “the greatest misfortune is lack of capacity for feeling…. My greatest sufferings are caused by my own heart, and yet, in spite of all, the most unbearable state is when I am free of suffering.” He was a man who suffered much, but who knew that his greatest thoughts were propelled by such suffering. He revealed to a colleague, “my philosophical reflections must not last more than two or three minutes, otherwise my head aches.” His thoughts could be profound. Lenz pondered, “the more I investigate myself and reflect on myself, the more reasons I find to doubt that I am really an independent being, despite the burning desire within me to be so.” Yet, he was a man crippled by his own doubts and insufficiencies, “give me more real sorrows so that the imaginary ones don’t overwhelm me.”
What united the Sturm und Drang? There was a conviction that life was all about feelings and intuition above reason and metaphysics. They also buckled against the social mores and general morality of their age. “They suffer continually under the pressure of practical life, not only in the form of routine work but also in that of social morality. The normal definitions of good and evil are irrelevant to their values, for they seek above all intense life, joy and woe, without which all human relationships are meaningless for them. They are tossed about by their emotions and imagination, are unstable, can see no perspective for the realisation of their ideals, and often feel themselves to be prey to forces within them which they worship even in their destructive power.” Theirs was a quest for “personal significance within an environment they considered worthless.”
The members of the Sturm und Drang movement were opposed to all absolutism. They did not believe in universal values. They buckled under the rule of an absolute monarch and impersonal laws. They were concerned with a national culture. However, this was far from the racist nationalism that sprung up and corrupted their thoughts later in the 20th century. Theirs was an appreciation for the forms of life and art that were grounded in the nation. Hamann would always stress the primacy of family versus the State as an organizing social institution. Leisewitz would ask, “And must the whole human race, in order to be happy, be locked up in states- where each man is a slave to others, and no-one is free- where each is riveted to the other end of the chain by which he holds his slave fast? Only idiots can dispute whether society poisons mankind- both sides admit that the state murders freedom.”
The Sturm und Drang praised the simple morality of the common folk that was unreflecting and unsophisticated. They particularly found sympathy with the Volk, the poorest of the laborers and peasants. The Sturm und Drang praised practical work, free from the learned society of professionals and bureaucrats. The Volk possessed a simple wisdom, spoke with unvarnished speech, and often felt and believed without having to espouse a reason. “Here sturdy individualism and communal ties, realism and religion were reconciled.” Moser would emphasize, “learning has weakened and perverted all human pleasures.” Herder, particularly, saw folksongs as embodying latent knowledge and national culture, passed down through the generations. The national poetry was embedded in folksong. For Herder, folksong was “the impression of the nation’s heart, a living grammar, the best dictionary and natural history of the people.”
Most of the Sturmer und Dranger were Pietists or, at least, viewed Christian religion with respect and awe. “Religion as they understood it is not a mere code of belief in a supernatural reality, a mere discipline or rule of behaviour, but the expression of a total relationship between man and the universe, man and his fellows, and between the different faculties of man; it embraces theory and practice.” The Sturmer und Dranger felt obliged to surrender to their innermost feelings, often expressed in their religious devotion. Merck would chastise the Deists, who “have deprived religion of all its sensuous elements, that is, of all its relish.” Hamann’s world was “a living web of meanings, instead of an objective, impersonal structure.” Hamaan would insist, “our own existence and the existence of all things outside us must be believed, and can be proved in no other way.” Herder would ask, “but what is a God, if he is not in you and you do not feel and taste his Being in an infinitely inward fashion?” Goethe did not consider himself a believer and yet he found “love and tolerance towards religion, a friendly feeling towards the Gospel, a holier veneration for the Word.” Faith, for Goethe, was the inner expression of the good life. He stated, “in religious faith, I used to say, the important thing is that one should believe; what one believes is of no concern…. Whether [children] believe in Christ, or Gotz, or Hamlet, it’s all one, but see that they do believe in something. If you don’t believe in something you despair about yourself…. The only useful religion must be simple and warm.” Lavater also believed in “the immediate feeling of Christ” that was a “sensuous experience.” He stated, “religion is the need for higher invisible things and a faith in them; religion is always sense, feeling, genius for the invisible, the higher, the superhuman, supermundane; religion is always faith!” Lenz would agree, “the soul creates itself and therewith its future state…. So all our independence, our whole existence is based on the number, the scope, the truth of our feelings and experiences, and on the strength with which we face up to them, think about them or, what is the same, are conscious of them.”
The Sturm und Drang struggled to find a purpose in the harsh reality in which they lived. “Obscurely but determinedly they refuse to see man as the instrument of external forces or as chained to external purposes, be they religious, metaphysical, physical, or social; they refuse to exalt one side of man, his soul or reason or sense, at the expense of others; they destroy the image man made of himself as an abstract intelligence, or a sentimental idealist, or a sensual egoist in the Mandeville or Helvetius sense. Man exists, in their view, to be himself most intensely, to develop all his powers to the full.” Goethe would summarize, “All that a man undertakes, whether it be by deed or word or anything else, must spring from his whole united powers; all separation is to be rejected.” Herder would emphasize, “The development of the forces of our soul is the purpose of our existence on earth…. Everyone’s actions should arise utterly from himself, according to his innermost character, he should be true to himself: that is the whole of morality.” Herder espoused a moral pluralism as well as a cultural pluralism. He stated, “each nation has its centre of happiness in itself, as a sphere its centre of gravity…. We live in a world we ourselves create.” Herder would go on, “The ideal of happiness changes as circumstances and regions change- for what else is it but the sum of fulfillment of wishes, of the purposes, and the gentle surmounting of wants, which all are transformed according to land, time and place.” Each culture is unique and cannot be judged by the criteria of another. There is no single purpose to life. Klinger would say, “I live like all true sons of Prometheus in the inward war of energies and activity with the bounds which men have imposed on demi-gods for their own comfort, for otherwise they would be crushed for ever.” Lenz would emphasize, “that action, action, is the soul of the world, not enjoyment, not sentimentality, not ratiocination, and only so do we become images of God, who incessantly acts and incessantly rejoices over his works. This we learn: that the active force within us is our spirit, our highest portion, which alone gives our body with all its sensory properties and feelings a true life, and true consistency, and true value, and without which all our enjoyment, all our feelings, all our knowledge are merely passive, merely a postponed death.” Goethe would say of man, “Nature is the source of his being, as it is the limit; what is beyond is meaningless, is unreal.” Herder sums up the Sturm und Drang’s feelings that man “is but an ant, that crawls on the wheel of fate.”
The Sturm und Drang movement is perhaps best expressed through their poetry. Herder would claim that poetic beauty is “what raises me above myself, what sets in motion all my powers.” He speaks to the poet, “for you, as a dramatic poet, no clock strikes on tower and temple, but you have to create space and time; and if you can produce a world and it cannot exist but in time and space, lo, your measure of time and space lies within you.” On language, Herder hypothesizes, “in a sensuous language there must be unclear words, synonyms, inversions, idioms…. Idioms are patronymic treasures of beauty, like the palm trees round the academy of Athens which were dedicated to Minerva.” He concludes, “the object of poetry is the energy that adheres to the inner meaning of words, the magic power which works upon my soul through fancy and memory.” Hamann would intone, “Speak so that I can see you…. Senses and passions speak and understand nothing but images. In images rests the whole treasury of human knowledge and understanding.” Lavater felt there was something divine expressed in poetry. He asks and answers himself, “Who is a poet? A spirit who feels that he can create, and who does create, and whose creation does not only please himself as his work, but of whose creation all tongues must witness: Truth! Truth! Nature! Nature! We see what we never saw, and hear what we never heard, and yet, what we see and hear is flesh of our flesh and bone of our bone!” Poetry, above all, must have realism; it must be lived within you. Burger would write, “in poetry, in spite of all divine sublimity, everything must be tangible and visual; if not, it is no poetry for this world, but perhaps for a different world which, however, does not exist.” Lenz summarizes the aims of the poetry of the Sturm und Drang, “We would like to penetrate with one glance into the innermost nature of all beings, to absorb with one feeling all the joy that is in nature and combine it with ourselves.”
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